https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2021.1852
Cover crops as a weed seed bank management tool: A soil down review
Submitted: 24 February 2021
Accepted: 21 September 2021
Published: 22 November 2021
Accepted: 21 September 2021
Abstract Views: 2428
PDF: 950
HTML: 64
HTML: 64
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
This review explores ways that cover crops alter soil environmental conditions that can be used to decrease seed survival, maintain weed seed dormancy, and reduce germination cues, thus reducing above-ground weed pressures. Cover crops are grown between cash crops in rotation, and their residues persist into subsequent crops, impacting weed seeds both during and after cover crops’ growth. Compared to no cover crop, cover crops may reduce weed seedling recruitment and density via: i) reducing soil temperature and fluctuations thereof; ii) reducing light availability and altering light quality; and iii) trapping nitrogen in the cover crop, thus making it less soil-available to weeds. In addition, cover crops may provide habitat for above- and below-ground fauna, resulting in increased weed seed predation. The allelopathic nature of some cover crops can also suppress weeds. However, not all effects of cover crops discourage weeds, such as potentially increasing soil oxygen. Furthermore, cover crops can reduce soil moisture while actively growing but conserve soil moisture after termination, resulting in time-dependent effects. Similarly, decaying legume cover crops can release nitrogen into the soil, potentially aiding weeds. The multiplicity of cover crop species and mixtures, differing responses between weed species, environmental conditions, and other factors hampers uniform recommendations and complicates management for producers. But, cover crops that are managed to maximize biomass, do not increase soil nitrogen, and are terminated at or after cash crop planting will have the greatest potential to attenuate the weed seed bank. There are still many questions to be answered, such as if targeting management efforts at the weed seed bank level is agronomically worthwhile. Future research on cover crops and weed management should include measurements of soil seed banks, including dormancy status, predation levels, and germination.
Highlights
- Cover crops alter the weed seed bank environment, influencing survival, dormancy, and germination.
- Weed seed germination may be reduced by decreased temperature and fluctuations thereof, light, and soil nitrogen.
- Weed seed germination may be increased by greater soil moisture, soil nitrogen, and oxygen.
- Management should maximize cover crop biomass, decrease soil nitrogen, and delay termination for the greatest potential.
- Future research should include measurements of weed seed banks, including dormancy status, predation, and germination.
Acharya BS, Dodla S, Gaston LA, Darapuneni M, Wang JJ, Sepat S, and Bohara H, 2019. Winter cover crops effect on soil moisture and soybean growth and yield under different tillage systems. Soil. Till. Res. 195:104430.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104430
Alshallash KS, 2018. Germination of weed species (Avena fatua, Bromus catharticus, Chenopodium album and Phalaris minor) with implications for their dispersal and control. Ann. Agric. Sci. 63:91-7.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2018.05.003
Baskin CC, Baskin JM, 1998. Seeds: ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA.
Batlla D and Benech-Arnold RL, 2014. Weed seed germination and the light environment: Implications for weed management: Light control of weed seed germination. Weed. Bio. Manage. 14:77-87.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/wbm.12039
Batlla D, Nicoletta M, Benech-Arnold R, 2007. Sensitivity of Polygonum aviculare seeds to light as affected by soil moisture conditions. Ann. Bot. 99:915-24.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcm029
Bello I, Hatterman-Valenti H, Owen M, 1998. Effects of stratification, temperature, and oxygen on woolly cupgrass (Eriochloa villosa) seed dormancy. Weed. Sci. 46:526-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500091037
Benech-Arnold, RL, Sánchez RA, Forcella F, Kruk BC, Ghersa CM, 2000. Environmental control of dormancy in weed seed banks in soil. Food. Crops. Res. 67:105-22.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(00)00087-3
Benvenuti S, Macchia M, 1995. Effect of hypoxia on buried weed seed germination. Weed. Res. 35:343-51.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.1995.tb01629.x
Blanco-Canqui H, Mikha MM, Presley DR, Claassen MM, 2011. Addition of cover crops enhances no-till potential for improving soil physical properties. S. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 75:1471-82.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2010.0430
Blubaugh, CK, Hagler, JR, Machtley, SA, Kaplan, I, 2016. Cover crops increase foraging activity of omnivorous predators in seed patches and facilitate weed biological control. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 231:264-70.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.06.045
Boyd N, and Van Acker R, 2004. Seed germination of common weed species as affected by oxygen concentration, light, and osmotic potential. Weed. Sci. 52:589-96.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-03-15R2
Carlsen SCK, Kudsk P, Laursen B, Mathiassen SK, Mortensen AG, Fomsgaard IS, 2009. Allelochemicals in rye (Secale cereale L.): Cultivar and tissue differences in the production of benzoxazinoids and phenolic acids. Nat. Prod. Comm. 4:199-208.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X0900400206
Carmona DM, Landis DA, 1999. Influence of refuge habitats and cover crops on seasonal activity-density of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in field crops. Bio. Con. 28:1145-53.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/28.6.1145
Chen G, Weil RR, Hill RL, 2014. Effects of compaction and cover crops on soil least limiting water range and air permeability. Soil. Till. Res. 136:61-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2013.09.004
Chen G, Weil RR, 2010. Penetration of cover crop roots through compacted soils. Plant. Soil. 331:31-43.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0223-7
Clark AJ, Decker AM, Meisinger JJ, and McIntosh MS, 1997. Kill date of vetch, rye, and a vetch-rye mixture: II. Soil moisture and corn yield. Agron. J. 89:434-41.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1997.00021962008900030011x
Cook JC, Gallagher RS, Kaye JP, Lynch J, and Bradley B, 2010. Optimizing vetch nitrogen production and corn nitrogen accumulation under no-till management. Agron. J. 102:1491-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2010.0165
Cromar HE, Murphy SD, Swanton CJ. 1999. Influence of tillage and crop residue on post dispersal predation of weed seeds. Weed. Sci. 47:184-94.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500091608
Davis, A, 2007. Nitrogen fertilizer and crop residue effects on seed mortality and germination of eight annual weed species. Weed Sci. 55:123-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-06-133.1
Davis AS, Anderson KI, Hallett SG, Renner KA, 2006. Weed seed mortality in soils with contrasting agricultural management histories. Weed Sci. 54:291-7.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-05-54.2.291
Derkx MPM, Karssen CM, 1994. Are seasonal dormancy patterns in Arabidopsis thaliana regulated by changes in seed sensitivity to light, nitrate and gibberellin? Ann. Bot. 73:129-36.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.1994.1015
Didon UM, Kolseth AK, Widmark D, Persson P, 2014. Cover crop residues - Effects on germination and early growth of annual weeds. Weed. Sci. 62:294-302.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-13-00117.1
Dyer WE, 1995. Exploiting weed seed dormancy and germination requirements through agronomic practices. Weed. Sci. 43:498-503.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500081534
Farooq M, Jabran K, Cheema ZA, Wahid A, and Siddique KH, 2011. The role of allelopathy in agricultural pest management. Pest. Manage. Sci. 67:493-506.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.2091
Fawcett RS, Slife FW, 1978. Effects of field applications of nitrate on weed seed germination and dormancy. Weed. Sci. 26:594-96.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500064626
Forbis TA, Floyd SK, de Queiroz A, 2002. The evolution of embryo size in angiosperms and other seed plants: Implications for the evolution of seed dormancy. Evo. 56:2112-25.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb00137.x
Frost MD, Haramoto ER, Renner KA, Brainard DC, 2019. Tillage and cover crop effects on weed seed persistence: Do light exposure and fungal pathogens play a role?. Weed. Sci. 67:103-13.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2018.80
Gallagher RS, Cardina J, 1998. Phytochrome-mediated Amaranthus germination I: effect of seed burial and germination temperature. Weed. Sci. 46:48-52.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500090159
Gallandt ER, 2006. How can we target the weed seedbank? Weed. Sci. 54:588-96.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-05-063R.1
Gallandt ER, Fuerst EP, Kennedy AC, 2004. Effect of tillage, fungicide seed treatment, and soil fumigation on seed bank dynamics of wild oat (Avena fatua). Weed. Sci. 52:597-604.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-03-078R
Geneve R, 2003. Impact of temperature on seed dormancy. Hort. Sci. 38:336-41.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.38.3.336
Haramoto, E, Gallandt, E, 2005. Brassica cover cropping: I. Effects on weed and crop establishment. Weed Sci. 53:695-701.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-04-162R.1
Haring SC, Flessner ML, 2018. Improving soil seed bank management. Pest. Manage. Sci. 74:2412-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5068
Heggenstaller AH, Menalled FD, Liebman M, Westerman PR, 2006. Seasonal patterns in post‐dispersal seed predation of Abutilon theophrasti and Setaria faberi in three cropping systems. J Appl. Ecol. 43:999-1010.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01198.x
Hilhorst HWM, Toorop PE, 1997. Review on dormancy, germinability, and germination in crop and weed seeds. Adv. Agr. Els. 61:111-65.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60663-X
Hoffman ML, Regnier EE, Cardina J, 1993. Weed and corn (Zea mays) responses to a hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) cover crop. Weed. Tech. 7:594-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0890037X00037398
Hoffman ML, Weston LA, Snyder JC, Regnier EE, 1996. Allelopathic influence of germinating seeds and seedlings of cover crops on weed species. Weed. Sci. 44:579-84.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500094376
Horn R, Taubner H, Wuttke M, Baumgartl T, 1994. Soil physical properties related to soil structure. Soil. Till. Res. 30:187-216.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(94)90005-1
Jabran K, Mahajan G, Sardana V, Chauhan BS, 2015. Allelopathy for weed control in agricultural systems. Crop. Prot. 72:57-65.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2015.03.004
Jha P, Norsworth JK, Riley MB, Bridges Jr. W, 2010. Annual changes in temperature and light requirements for germination of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) seeds retrieved from soil. Weed. Sci. 58:426-32.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-09-00038.1
Jian J, Du X, Reiter MS, Stewart RD, 2020. A meta-analysis of global cropland soil carbon changes due to cover cropping. Soil. Bio. Bio. 143:107735.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.107735
Joyce BA, Wallender WW, Mitchell JP, Huyck LM, Temple SR, Brostrom PN, Hsiao TC, 2002. Infiltration and soil water storage under winter cover cropping in California’s Sacramento Valley. Trans. ASAE. 45:315.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.8526
Kahimba FC, Ranjan RS, Froese J, Entz M, Nason R, 2008. Cover crop effects on infiltration, soil temperature, and soil moisture distribution in the Canadian Prairies. App. Eng. Ag. 24:321-33.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.24502
Kaye J, Finney D, White C, Bradley B, Schipanski M, Alonso-Ayuso M, Hunter M, Burgess M, Mejia C, 2019. Managing nitrogen through cover crop species selection in the U.S. mid-Atlantic. Pls. On. 14:e0215448.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215448
Lee KE, Foster RC, 1991. Soil fauna and soil structure. Sci. Res. 29:745-75.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9910745
Lemon ER, Erickson AE, 1952. The measurement of oxygen diffusion in the soil with a platinum microelectrode. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 16:160-3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1952.03615995001600020013x
Leon RG, Owen MDK, 2003. Regulation of weed seed dormancy through light and temperature interactions. Weed. Sci. 51:752-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/P2002-173
Liebl R, Summons WF, Wax LM, Stoller EW, 1992. Effect of rye (Secale cereale) mulch on weed control and soil moisture in soybean (Glycine max). Weed. Tech. 6:838-46.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0890037X00036356
Manson R, Stiles EW, 1998. Links between microhabitat preferences and seed predation by small mammals in old fields. Oikos 82:37-50.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3546915
Migge-Kleian S, McLean MA, Maerz JC, Heneghan L, 2006. The influence of invasive earthworms on indigenous fauna in ecosystems previously uninhabited by earthworms. Bio. Inv. 8:1275-85.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9021-9
Mirsky SB, Gallandt ER, Mortensen DA, Curran WS, Shumway DL, 2010. Reducing the germinable weed seedbank with soil disturbance and cover crops. Weed. Res. 50:341-52.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2010.00792.x
Mirsky SB, Ryan MR, Teasdale JR, Curran WS, Reberg-Horton CS, Spargo JT, Wells MS, Keene CL, Moyer JW, 2013. Overcoming weed management challenges in cover crop-based organic rotational no-till soybean production in the Eastern United States. Weed. Tech. 27:193-203.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-D-12-00078.1
Mohler CL, Dykeman C, Nelson EB, Ditommaso A, 2012. Reduction in weed seedling emergence by pathogens following the incorporation of green crop residue. Weed. Res. 52:467-77.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2012.00940.x
Mohler CL, Taylor AG, DiTommaso A, Hahn RR, Bellinder RR, 2018. Effects of incorporated rye and hairy vetch cover crop residue on the persistence of weed seeds in the soil. Weed. Sci. 66:379-85.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2017.80
Osipitan OA, Dille JA, Assefa Y, Knezevic SZ, 2018. Cover crop for early season weed suppression in crops: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Agron. J. 110:2211-21.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.12.0752
Otte BA, Rice CP, Davis BW, Schomberg HH, Mirsky SB, Tully KL, 2020. Phenolic acids released to soil during cereal rye cover crop decomposition. Chemeco. 30:25-34.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00049-019-00295-z
Pickett ST, Baskin JM, 1973. The role of temperature and light in the germination behavior of Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Bull. Tor. Bot. Clb. 100:165-70.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2484628
Plastina A, Liu F, Miguez F, Carlson S, 2020. Cover crops use in Midwestern US agriculture: perceived benefits and net returns. Renew. Ag. Food Syst. 35:38-48.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170518000194
Powles SB, Gaines TA, 2018 Exploring the potential for a regulatory change to encourage diversity in herbicide use. Weed. Sci. 64:649-54.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-15-00070.1
Rector L, 2019. Herbicide carryover to cover crops and evaluation of cover crops for annual weed control in corn and soybeans. Degree thesis. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.
Roarty S, Hackett RA, Schmidt O, 2017. Earthworm populations in twelve cover crop and weed management combinations. App. Soil. Eco. 114:142-51.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.02.001
Rius M, Darling JA, 2014. How important is intraspecific genetic admixture to the success of colonising populations? Trends Ecol Evol 29:233-42.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2014.02.003
Sainju UM, Singh BP, Whitehead WF, 1998. Cover crop root distribution and its effects on soil nitrogen cycling. Agro. J. 90:511-8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1998.00021962009000040012x
Sarabi V, 2019. Factors that influence the level of weed seed predation: A review. Weed. Bio. Manage. 19:61-74.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/wbm.12186
Schimpf DJ, Palmblad IG, 1980. Germination response of weed seeds to soil nitrate and ammonium with and without simulated overwintering. Weed. Sci. 28:190-3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500055089
Schulz M, Marocco A, Tabaglio V, Tabaglio V, Macias FA, Molinillo JMG, 2013. Benzoxazinoids in rye allelopathy - From discovery to application in sustainable weed control and organic farming. J. Chem. Ecol. 39:154-74.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-013-0235-x
Sexsmith JJ, Pittman UJ, 1963. Effect of nitrogen fertilizers on germination and stand of wild oats. Weeds. 11:99-101.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/4040699
Shearin AF, Reberg-Horton SC, Gallandt ER, 2008. Cover crop effects on the activity-density of the weed seed predator Harpalus rufipes (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Weed. Sci. 56:442-50.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-07-137.1
Sievers T, Cook RL, 2018. Aboveground and root decomposition of cereal rye and hairy vetch cover crops. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 82:147-55.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2017.05.0139
Stewart RD, Jian J, Gyawali AJ, Thomason WE, Badgley BD, Reiter MS, Strickland MS, 2018. What we talk about when we talk about soil health. Agric. Env. Lett. 3:180033.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/ael2018.06.0033
Teasdale JR, 1996. Contribution of cover crops to weed management in sustainable agricultural systems. J. Prod. Agric. 9:475-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/jpa1996.0475
Teasdale JR, Daughtry CST, 1993. Weed suppression by live and desiccated hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Weed. Sci. 41:207-12.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043174500076074
Teasdale JR, Mohler CL, 1993. Light transmittance, soil temperature, and soil moisture under residue of hairy vetch and rye. Agron. J. 85:673-80.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1993.00021962008500030029x
Thompson K, Grime JP, 1983. A comparative study of germination responses to diurnally-fluctuating temperatures. J. Apld. Eco. 20:141-56.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2403382
Villamil MB, Bollero GA, Darmody RG, Simmons FW, Bullock DG, 2006. No-till corn/soybean systems including winter cover crops. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70:1936-44.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2005.0350
Ward MJ, Ryan MR, Curran WS, Barbercheck ME, Mortensen DA, 2011. Cover crops and disturbance influence activity-density of weed seed predators Amara aenea and Harpalus pensylvanicus (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Weed. Sci. 59:76-81.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-10-00065.1
Wayman S, Cogger C, Benedict C, Collins D, Burke I, Bary A, 2015. Cover crop effects on light, nitrogen, and weeds in organic reduced tillage. Agroeco. Sust. Food. Syst. 39:647-65.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2015.1018398
Weil R, Kremen A, 2007. Thinking across and beyond disciplines to make cover crops pay. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 87:551-57.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2742
White SS, Renner KA, Menalled FD, Landis DA, 2007. Feeding preferences of weed seed predators and effect on weed emergence. Weeds. 55:606-12.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-06-162.1
Zhu JC, Gantzer CJ, Anderson SH, Alberts EE, Beuselinck PR, 1989. Runoff, soil, and dissolved nutrient losses from no-till soybean with winter cover crops. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53:1210-4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1989.03615995005300040037x
Zorner PS, Zimdahl RL, Schweizer EE, 1984. Sources of viable seed loss in buried dormant and non-dormant populations of wild oat (Avena fatua L.) seed in Colorado. Wd. Res. 24:143-50.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.1984.tb00582.x
How to Cite
Sias, C., Wolters, B. R., Reiter, M. S., & Flessner, M. L. (2021). Cover crops as a weed seed bank management tool: A soil down review. Italian Journal of Agronomy, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2021.1852
Copyright (c) 2021 The Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.